Sonnet 116 Review

marriage†¦ impediments (1-2): T. G. Tucker explains that the first two lines are a â€Å"manifest allusion to the words of the Marriage Service: ‘If any of you know cause or just impediment why these two persons should not be joined together in holy matrimony'; cf. Much Ado 4. 1. 12. ‘If either of you know any inward impediment why you should not be conjoined. ‘ Where minds are true – in possessing love in the real sense dwelt upon in the following lines – there can be no ‘impediments' through change of circumstances, outward appearance, or temporary lapses in conduct. † (Tucker, 192). ends with the remover to remove (4): i. e. , deviates (â€Å"bends†) to alter its course (â€Å"remove†) with the departure of the lover. ever-fixed mark (5): i. e. , a lighthouse (mark = sea-mark). Compare Othello (5. 2. 305-7): Be not afraid, though you do see me weapon'd; Here is my journey's end, here is my butt, And very sea-mark of m y utmost sail. the star to every wandering bark (7): i. e. , the star that guides every lost ship (guiding star = Polaris). Shakespeare again mentions Polaris (also known as â€Å"the north star†) in Much Ado About Nothing (2. 1. 222) and Julius Caesar (3. 1. 65).Whose worth's unknown, although his height be taken (8): The subject here is still the north star. The star's true value can never truly be calculated, although its height can be measured. Love's not Time's fool (9): i. e. , love is not at the mercy of Time. Within his bending sickle's compass come (10): i. e. , physical beauty falls within the range (â€Å"compass†) of Time's curved blade. Note the comparison of Time to the Grim Reaper, the scythe-wielding personification of death. edge of doom (12): i. e. , Doomsday. Compare 1 Henry IV (4. 1. 141): Come, let us take a muster speedily: Doomsday is near; die all, die merrily.

Mangment this is a paper for studying mangment in an academic setting for MBA Essay

The factors that affect the productivity of PATs include the size of incentive bonuses paid to workers, base pay increases, perfect attendance bonuses, the size of the fringe benefits package, how favorably the overall size of a company’s compensation package compares with the industry-average compensation package, expenditures for PAT training and productivity improvement, and changes in the number of models. Perfect attendance bonuses, how much overtime is offered to PATs so as to boost their take-home pay, how many PATs are laid off, the percentage of newly-hired PATs, the percentage use of temporary PATs, and PAT compensation levels. P/Q ratings, the warranty claim rates, the amount of overtime, the percentage of cameras outsourced, and how many cameras are assembled each quarter. the complexity of the company’s camera designs; a company’s cumulative spending for new product R&D, engineering and design; the number of models; camera body ergonomics/durability; and the number of camera components. PAT training and experience, the number of PATs laid off, base pay increases, warranty claim rates, and P/Q ratings †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. The interest rate a company pays on loans outstanding depends on its credit rating. How much it has borrowed against its credit line and its debt-assets ratio. How many consecutive years the company has been profitable, its current ratio, and its ROE Its net profit margins, ROE, and amount of cash on hand to make interest payments Its current ratio, global market share, debt-assets ratio, net profits, and balance sheet strength †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. The company maintains a production facility in the United States. Japan. China. Germany. Taiwan. The decisions that company co-managers make each year are organized around new product R&D, components production, work force management, advertising and marketing, and finance. supply chain management, assembly, distribution, sales force management, advertising and marketing, customer service, and finance. components production and assembly, distribution and retailer relations, advertising and promotion, customer service, and accounting. supply chain management, components production, assembly, distribution and dealer relations, sales and marketing, and cash flow management. marketing and promotions, product design, assembly/shipping, compensation and labor force, and finance.

10 methods to prevent webserver overload

10 methods to prevent webserver overload Causes of overload are various. At any time, web servers can be overloaded due to reasons like: Web servers incomplete availability- This can happen because of expected or necessary support or update, hardware or software crashes, back-end malfunctions, etc. In these circumstances, the rest of the web servers get too much traffic and grow overloaded. Surplus logical web traffic numerous clients which are connecting to the website within a brief interval may cause an overload in the web server. Computer worms and XSS viruses that will cause irregular traffic due to millions of infected computers, browsers or web servers. Distributed Denial of Service attacks (DoS attack, DDoS attack). A denial-of-service attack or distributed denial-of-service attack is an effort to make a computer or network device unavailable to its proposed users. Network slowdowns so that client requests are completed more slowly and the number of connections increases so much that server limits are approached. The implications of an overloaded web server are: Overload results in a delayed serving of requests from 1 second to a few hundred seconds. All are familiar with the 404-error code just like that the web server returns an HTTP error code, such as 500, 502, 503, 504, 408, etc which are inappropriate overload condition. The web server denies or resets TCP connections before it returns any content. Sometimes the web server delivers only a part of the requested content. This can be studied as a bug, even if it normally occurs as a symptom of overload. How to prevent overload of web servers To partly master above average load limits and to prevent overload, several big websites practice standard techniques like for instance: Controlling network traffic, by using Firewalls to block undesired traffic coming from poor IP sources or having inadequate patterns. HTTP traffic managers can be placed to drop, redirect or rewrite requests which have poor HTTP patterns. To smooth the peaks in the network usage bandwidth management and traffic shaping can be done Expanding web cache methods Implementing different domain names to subserve different content by separate web servers. Employing different domain names or computers to separate big files from small and medium-sized files. The idea is to be able to fully cache small and medium-sized files and sufficiently serve big or huge files by using different settings Using many internet servers or programs per computer, each one connected to its own network card and IP address Using many computers that are arranged together behind a load balancer so that they perform or seen as one large web server Combining more hardware devices to each computer. Tuning OS parameters for hardware capacities and usage Adopting more efficient computer programs for web servers, etc. Practicing other workarounds, particularly if dynamic content is included.

Write an Executive Summary that is well written and has a clear idea Research Paper

Write an Executive Summary that is well written and has a clear idea of 's organization and structure - Research Paper Example AJLM Manufacturing Inc. has announced its plans to improve its welding capabilities and improve the processes in the facilities within the company. AJLM Manufacturing Inc. is the small provider of metal welding and fabrication in the region, the company is now making it public its strategy to expand and improve welding services it is providing to its customers in different industries (AJL Manufacturing, Inc., 2015). The company’s vision is to be the company that provides precise welding capabilities to its customers in the best way they can. The company has a very good background with regard to welding services and in light of its move to expand and digitize it operations AJLM Manufacturing Inc. is confident that it has the ability to provide the best quality service required for application in diverse industries ranging from commercial to automotive industries. The company is planning to upgrade its welding equipment (AJL Manufacturing, Inc., 2015). The expansion will also include upgrading current spray arc, stainless steel and aluminum welding as well as silver soldering systems. With digitization and expansion the company will be in a better position than before to provide the essential welding service. There are different welding systems used by the company and with the company have continued to offer its customers quality source of welding services in the region and now moving across to other county. With this the company is alive to the fact that it is very important not only to be equipped with a lot of welding capabilities but also to upgrade them as well (AJL Manufacturing, Inc., 2015). When it comes to welding the company adopts different technique and uses different tools they have acquired and the ones they have kept and maintained over time. The current project at hand is to digitize and expand, and the companies technicians will be trained to acquaint

William Faulkner's A Rose for Emily Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

William Faulkner's A Rose for Emily - Essay Example In â€Å"A Rose for Emily†, the narrator has highlighted some of the extremes of isolation and seclusion which are the true reflections of Emily’s physical behavior and mental attitude towards herself, the relatives and the society in general. The character Emily is emerged as a true personified character which covered the main theme of the story under the umbrella of isolation. This feeling of being isolated led Emily to react in a certain way which kept everybody out of the enlarged circle drawn on the basis of isolation. Thesis Statement â€Å"Emily’s life is a reflection of isolation that can be experienced from her acts, behaviors and attitudes.† In the story â€Å"A Rose for Emily†, the narrator presented several times the withdrawal of the character Emily. Emily withdrew herself from her close relatives even from her father, her lover, the community and townspeople around her. Every now and then the proofs of her seclusion from different peop le around her are found in the story. The script witnessed that Emily lived a substantial period of her life with his father only. After her father’s departure, his lover entered into her life, entered into her house but never came out. The townspeople looked the corpse of her lover, Homer, after the death of Emily. There were no signs of Emily getting married to any man and involving herself towards creation of a family which also reflects as how badly she wanted to be stay away from the people. No women of the town had ever seen her house till†¦ Her isolation with man and woman of the town can be observed in the beginning of the story where narrator describes the event of Emily’s funeral. The narrator states that â€Å"The women mostly out of curiosity to see the inside of her house, which no one save an old man-servant--a combined gardener and cook--had seen in at least ten years.† This shows that how unaware were the women of that town that even at this sad occasion, every women was looking at her house more than sharing grief of the death of Emily. To all the women, the personality of Emily was hidden and none of those women ever had any relationship wtih Emily. The other thing that can be observed from the narrator’s statement is that there was only a single servant, elder in age, had the duties of gardening and cooking. This shows that not even a single woman ever entered into her house and maintained any sort of relationship with Emily. People of the town observed her presence very rarely even after†¦ The story also depicts her isolated behavior of living in the town. For instance, at one point in the story, the narrator describes her persistent isolated behavior even after the death of her father and after the departure of her lover. Her father kept her away from the men till the end of his life. In this way, she remained isolated from men and it can be said that her young age was spoilt by her father. There is al so an evidence of her isolation when her lover disappeared from her life, which can be characterized as another incident of her isolation. The narrator states these lines in the story showing her isolation as â€Å"After her father's death she went out very little; after her sweetheart went away, people hardly saw her at all.† These lines tell her isolation in many ways like isolation due to death of her father, isolation due to departure of her lover, and isolation due to lack of her interest towards the town as anyone hardly observed her presence in the town even after the disappearance of those people. Emily had no interest towards†¦ The reason behind her isolation was the way her father brought her up to stay away from the people especially from men. Even when was she was in her thirties, she was still single. The

How has globalization affected employment and communities in Essay

How has globalization affected employment and communities in contemporary Britain Focus on the de-industrialised Greater Glasgow area as discussed in a recent report by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation - Essay Example In the end, this affects the whole economy as communities feel the effects of uneven distribution of resources especially in regards to industrialisation. However, this is not only experienced in Greater Glasgow area but it is the same case in other places like the Heathrow village which is in west London. First, globalisation has a major impact on migration and labour markets. The migration details are differential in that different places experience different levels of migration. Some people migrate to get to a better place in terms of working places and wages. However, some people are on the receiving end as they are most likely to experience low wages to whichever place they are migrating to in search of a better working environment (Industrial Communities Alliance, 2009:24). Similarly, the labour markets are unevenly distributed. Whereas some labour markets are having an environment that is conducive to some people, other labour markets are offering adverse conditions. Similarly, some labour markets in the area are highly benefiting from globalisation as they are well established. Apparently, some people in this region are experiencing adverse market conditions. This is broadly experienced in the Greater Glasgow area where some individuals and groups are reaping the advantages of globalisation while others are not (MacKinnon, Cumbers, Featherstone, Ince and Strauss, 2011:2). In bizarre instances, some people in the same area are excluded from the labour markets instigated by globalisation. Therefore, some people are benefitting at the plight of others owing to the spread of globalisation. Inequalities in the Greater Glasgow area have threatened an increased effect from recession to some individuals and groups that reside here. It is considered that while globalisation is intensifying, the marginalised groups will experience harder financial situations. This is owing to the

Entering the Conversation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Entering the Conversation - Essay Example As the authors themselves put it, â€Å"the template can be used to structure your writing at the sentence level and can also be expanded to accommodate your views†. Although some people believe that the use of these templates will take away originality, creativity and create similarity in works, others hold the opinion that it’s complicated to use while some say the templates would be considered as plagiarism. Graff and Birkenstein insist that it’s not the ‘third grade level stuff’, but only need practice to be able to use properly and that it helps a writer’s work become more original since a template do not say the content of work but only suggest the format, besides, it’s not considered a plagiarism since it’s a conventional way of communication that nobody owns as a personal property. In total, their view is that this template is good to use and with enough practice, one becomes perfect in its use to structure a good argument. I agree with their view, the types of templates these authors recommend are good and give a free sphere to make additions of whatever information is needed. In addition, the templates make one a critical thinker with the ability to enter any type of academic conversation. Although some might object on grounds that have been outlined above and yes, one who hasn’t thought critically about the importance of the templates would argue in that way, in overall, I believe that the templates are a good idea that all writers should embrace given their importance and use that inculcates better argumentative formula on writers. In the Norton Field Guide to Writing with Readings, Richard Bullock, and Maureen Daly provide different reading strategies for critical reading i.e. previewing text to annotating as you read, identifying meaningful patterns and analyzing an argument (Richard & Maureen pg 352). The authors, Richard Bullock and Maureen Daly, argue that reading

Managerial Economics class discussion wk9 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Managerial Economics class discussion wk9 - Essay Example The rate of the change is too fast hence participation of knowledge workers in organization is required intensively. Organizations strive to ensure their retain relevance and remain significant in the fast changing markets. For this reason, knowledge workers and knowledge economy have been mandatory requirements (Reinhardt et.al, 2011). Considering that change, innovation and adaptability are important aspects in the modern century, firms need to address problems that may hinder effective transition. Firstly, the knowledge of the crowd requires harnessing (Reinhardt et.al, 2011). Increasing the quantity of knowledge workers is an important strategy. Firms should then update their innovation requirements. This can be done by understanding the market requirements as demanded by innovation and change. Placing a knowledgeable crowd to work on these changes increases the suitability of the form to adapt to the market changes. In addition, internal approaches to develop ICT infrastructures may increase the suitability of the firm to compete effectively in a technologically advanced market (Reinhardt et.al,

Should the government provide free public education to children of Essay - 2

Should the government provide free public education to children of illegal immigrants - Essay Example Critics’ against free public education for illegal immigrants a. Expense b. Threat c) Conclusion 2. Work cited Illegal Immigrants and Free Public Education America has been experiencing a high number of immigrants. Many people are leaving their countries heading to America in pursuit of job opportunities and better living standards. Some of these immigrants do not have the permit, or have expired visas or even improper documentation to be in America hence are illegal immigrants and may come with their families inclusive of their school going children. Although America advocates free primary school education, it has the challenge of whether or not to provide these children with free public education (Grandrath, 2011). This argument has been continuing for quite a long time, but no specific agreement reached. Education is crucial but expensive, hence the need for free public education. Though the provision for free public education to illegal immigrants still face challenge, the need is inevitable. Educational Goals Generally, every young individual has aspirations and expectations of a good future. It is considerably true that education is the key to self-development and sustainability. To enable the young individuals achieve their goals, America provides its’ citizens with free education in public schools. ... Education also renders an individual, political empowerment (Grandrath, 2011). This will make sure that the individuals are aware of the voting systems, rights, and freedom on any political freedom. Importance of free public education for illegal immigrants Providing education to children of illegal immigrants will reduce the rate of crimes in America. This is because when children are at school, their minds are busy and with constructive ideas. Ignoring such children may end up involving themselves with robbery, immoral behaviors, and all sorts of vices, following a common saying; an idle mind is a devils workshop. Therefore, educating such children shall contribute in upholding high morals in the society. Education is the foundation of development and actualization. Since every child has a goal and a dream to attain in future, refuting a child right to education interferes with his future (Longley, 2012). Although the security bodies argue that illegal immigrants are a threat to st ate security, educating their children will assist on enlightening them on the importance of peace and harmony in the society. Once educated, they may realize their talents and explore them in promoting the security issue in the states (Ramirez, 2008). Moreover, every economy faces labor shortage at any times due to the economic cycle. Providing such children with skills and knowledge will make sure that there is an adequate supply of labor. In return, this stable labor supply supports economic growth but leaving such children out of the education block, may translate that, important labor force has been ignored. Therefore, educating these children will solve the problem of labor importation to cater for the unfilled job vacancies which is a bit

Phonetics Case Essay Example for Free

Phonetics Case Essay Introduction The aim of this thesis is to give a systematic description of some aspects of English morphophonemic. The thesis falls into 2 chapters: The first chapter, which is an introduction, presents a short sketch of the title, the problem, the purpose of the study,phonological rules. The second chapter is devoted to some of the basic concepts required in the study of morphophonemic. It starts with various definitions of morpheme, allomorph. The thesis ends with some conclusions, a list of bibliography. Morphophonemic Analysis designates the analytic procedures whereby paradigms with phonological alternations are reduced to underlying representations and phonological rules. The term morphophonemic analysis has a now obscure origin. In the 1940s and 1950s, many phonologists worked with a theory in which (roughly) all neutralizing rules were assumed to apply before all allophonic rules. This in effect divided the phonology into two components: a neutralizing component, whose units were called morphophonemes, and a non-neutralizing component, which dealt with phonemes and allophones. This bifurcated-phonology theory is widely considered untenable today, but  morphophonemics remains a useful term for characterizing the study of neutralizing phonological rules as they apply in paradigms. When we conduct morphophonemic analysis, we seek to establish a connection between data and theory. The theory in question is that morphemes are stored in the lexicon in an invariant phonemic form, are strung together by morphological and syntactic rules, and are then converted to their surface forms by a sequence of phonological rules (often neutralizing), applied in a particular order. The purpose of morphophonemic analysis is to discover a set of underlying forms and ordered rules that are consistent with the data; and the payoff is that seemingly complex patterns are often reduced to simplicity. Morphophonemic analysis may be contrasted with phonemic analysis. Phonemic analysis is a more limited form of phonological analysis that seeks only to discover the non-neutralizing (allophonic) rules of the phonology. In phonemic analysis, only the distribution and similarity of the phones is examined. Therefore, the data need not be grouped in paradigms, but need only comprise a sufficiently large and representative set of words. Like phonemic analysis, morphophonemic analysis can be pursued with a systematic method. The main purpose of my work consists in making exact definition of a phoneme and allophone and be able to distinguish them. To understand what is morphophonemic?   Problems of my work are: morphophonemic and morphophonological rules, types of morphophonological changes, relation between phonology and morphophonology, isolation forms, rule ordering, morphophonology and orthography. Morphophonology (also morphophonemics, morphonology) is a branch of linguistics which studies the interaction between morphological and phonological or phonetic processes. Its chief focus is the sound changes that take place in morphemes (minimal meaningful units) when they combine to form words. Morphophonological analysis often involves an attempt to give a series of formal rules that successfully predict the regular sound changes occurring in the morphemes of a given language. Such a series of rules  converts a theoretical underlying representation into a surface form that is actually heard. The units of which the underlying representations of morphemes are composed are sometimes called morphophonemes. The surface form produced by the morphophonological rules may consist of phonemes (which are then subject to ordinary phonological rules to produce speech sounds or phones), or else the morphophonological analysis may bypass the phoneme stage and produce the phones itself. Morphop honemes and morphophonological rules When morphemes combine, they influence each others sound structure (whether analyzed at a phonetic or phonemic level), resulting in different variant pronunciations for the same morpheme. Morphophonology attempts to analyze these processes. A languages morphophonological structure is generally described with a series of rules which, ideally, can predict every morphophonological alternation that takes place in the language. An example of a morphophonological alternation in English is provided by the plural morpheme, written as -s or -es. Its pronunciation alternates between [s], [z], and [É ªz], as in cats, dogs, and horses respectively. A purely phonological analysis would most likely assign to these three endings the phonemic representations /s/, /z/, /É ªz/. On a morphophonological level, however, they may all be considered to be forms of the underlying object //z//, which is a morphophoneme. The different forms it takes are dependent on the segment at the end of the morpheme to which it attaches – these dependencies are described by morphophonological rules. (The behaviour of the English past tense ending -ed is similar – it can be pronounced [t], [d] or [É ªd], as in hoped, bobbed and added.) Note that the plural suffix -s can also influence the form taken by the preceding morpheme, as in the case of the words leaf and knife, which end with [f] in the singular, but have [v] in the plural (leaves, knives). On a morphophonological level these morphemes may be analyzed as ending in a morphophoneme //F//, which becomes voiced when a voiced consonant (in this case the //z// of the plural ending) is attached to it. This rule may be written symbolically as: /F/ - [ÃŽ ±voice] / __ [ÃŽ ±voice]. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, pipes (| |) are often used to indicate a morphophonemic rather than phonemic representation. Another common convention is double slashes (// //), as  above, implying that the transcription is more phonemic than simply phonemic. Other conventions sometimes seen are double pipes (|| ||) and curly brackets ({ }). Types of morphophonological changes Inflected and agglutinating languages may have extremely complicated systems of morphophonemics. Examples of complex morphophonological systems include: 1. Sandhi, the phenomenon behind the English examples of plural and past tense above, is found in virtually all languages to some degree. Even Mandarin, which is sometimes said to display no morphology, nonetheless displays tone sandhi, a morphophonemic alternation. 2. Consonant gradation, found in some Uralic languages such as Finnish, Estonian, Northern Sà ¡mi, and Nganasan. 3. Vowel harmony, which occurs in varying degrees in languages all around the world, notably Turkic languages. 3. Ablaut, found in English and other Germanic languages. Ablaut is the phenomenon wherein stem vowels change form depending on context, as in English sing, sang, sung. Relation between phonology and morphophonology Until the 1950s, many phonologists assumed that neutralizing rules generally applied before allophonic rules. Thus phonological analysis was split into two parts: a morphophonological part, where neutralizing rules were developed to derive phonemes from morphophonemes; and a purely phonological part, where phones were derived from the phonemes. Since the 1960s (in particular with the work of the generative school, such as Chomsky and Halles The Sound Pattern of English) many linguists have moved away from making such a split, instead regarding the surface phones as being derived from the underlying morphophonemes (which may be referred to using various terminology) through a single system of (morpho)phonological rules. The purpose of both phonemic and morphophonemic analysis is to produce simpler underlying descriptions for what appear on the surface to be complicated patterns. In purely phonemic analysis the data is just a set of words in a language, while for the purposes of morphophonemic analysis the words must be considered in grammatical paradigms to take account of the underlying morphemes. It is postulated that morphemes are recorded in the speakers lexicon in an invariant (morphophonemic) form, which, in a given environment, is converted by rules into a surface form. The analyst attempts  to present as completely as possible a system of underlying units (morphophonemes) and a series of rules that act on them, so as to produce surface forms consistent with the linguistic data. Isolation forms The isolation form of a morpheme is the form in which that morpheme appears in isolation (when not subject to the effects of any other morpheme). In the case of a bound morpheme, such as the English past tense ending -ed, it will generally not be possible to identify an isolation form, since such a morpheme does not occur in isolation. It is often reasonable to assume that the isolation form of a morpheme provides its underlying representation. For example, in some American English, plant is pronounced [plà ¦nt], while planting is [ˈplà ¦nÉ ªÃ…‹], where the morpheme plant- appears in the form [plà ¦n]. Here the underlying form can be assumed to be //plà ¦nt//, corresponding to the isolation form, since rules can be set up to derive the reduced form [plà ¦n] from this (while it would be difficult or impossible to set up rules that would derive the isolation form [plà ¦nt] from an underlying //plà ¦n//). This is not always the case, however; sometimes the isolation form itself is subject to neutralization that does not apply to some other instances of the morpheme. For example, the French word petit (small) is pronounced in isolation without the final [t] sound, although in certain derived forms (such as the feminine petite) the [t] is heard. If the isolation form were adopted as the underlying form, the information that there is a final t would be lost, and it would be hard to explain the appearance of the t in the inflected forms. Rule ordering Morphophonological rules are generally considered to apply in a set order. This means that the application of one rule may sometimes either prevent or enable the application of another rule provided the rules are appropriately ordered. If the ordering of two rules is such that the application of the first rule can have the effect of making it possible to apply the second, then the rules are said to be in feeding order. For example, if a language has an apocope rule (A) which deletes a final vowel, and a cluster reduction rule (CR) that reduces a final consonant cluster, then the rules are in feeding order if A precedes CR, since the application of A can enable application of CR (for example, a word ending /-rpa/ is not itself subject  to CR, since the consonant cluster is not final, but if A is applied to it first, leaving /-rp/, then CR can apply). Here rule A is said to feed rule CR. If the rules are ordered such as to avoid possible feeding (in this case, if CR applies before A) then they are said to be in counter-feeding order. On the other hand, if rules are ordered such that the application of the first rule can have the effect of preventing application of the second, then the rules are said to be in bleeding order. For example, if a language has an epenthesis rule (E) that inserts a /w/ before certain vowels, and a vowel deletion rule (D) that deletes one of two consecutive vowels, then the rules are in bleeding order if E precedes D, since the application of E can prevent application of D (for example, a word containing /-iu-/ would be subject to D, but if E is applied to it first, leaving /-iwu-/, then D can no longer apply). Here rule E is said to bleed rule D. If the rules are ordered such as to avoid possible bleeding (in this case, if D applies before E) then they are said to be in counter-bleeding order. The terminology of feeding and bleeding is also applied to other linguistic rules, such as those of historical sound changes. Morphophonology and orthography The principle behind alphabetic writing systems is that the letters (graphemes) represent phonemes. However in many orthographies based on such systems the correspondences between graphemes and phonemes are not exact, and it is sometimes the case that certain spellings better represent a words morphophonological structure rather than the purely phonological. An example of this is that the English plural morpheme is written -s regardless of whether it is pronounced as /s/ or /z/; we write cats and dogs, not dogz. The above example involves active morphology (inflection), and morphophonemic spellings are common in this context in many languages. Another type of spelling that can be described as morphophonemic is the kind that reflects the etymology of words. Such spellings are particularly common in English; examples include science /saÉ ª/ vs. unconscious /ÊÆ'/, prejudice /prÉ›/ vs. prequel /priË /, sign /saÉ ªn/ signature /sÉ ªÃ‰ ¡n/, nation /neÉ ª/ vs. nationalism /nà ¦/, and special /spÉ›/ vs. species /spiË /. Conclusions according to this chapter Morphophonology (also morphophonemics, morphonology) is a branch of linguistics which studies: 1. The phonological structure of morphemes. 2. The combinatory phonic modifications of morphemes which happen when they are combined. 3. The alternative series which serve a morphological function. Examples of a morphophonological alternatives in English include these distinctions: Plurals -es and -s, as in bus, buses, vs. bun, buns. Plural of -f is -ves, as in leaf, leaves. Different pronunciations for the past tense marker -ed. English, having lost its inflection, does not have much morphophonology. Inflected and agglutinating languages may have extremely complicated systems, e.g., consonant gradation. A morphophonemic rule has the form of a phonological rule, but is restricted to a particular morphological environment. Morphophonemic rules are sensitive to their environment, unlike phonological rules. Whenever morphological information is required to specify the environment for an allophonic rule, the rule is morphophonemic. The prefix /in-/ has the allomorphs [il] and [ir]: /in-/ + responsible irresponsible /in-/ + logical illogical Therefore, there must be a morphophonemic rule which determines the allomorphs [il] and [ir] of the prefix /in-/. The purpose of both phonemic and morphophonemic analysis is to produce simpler underlying descriptions for what appear on the surface to be complicated patterns. When morphemes are clustered or grouped in words than changes in the phonological structures of these words occur. Such changes are called morphophonemic changes. Assuming that we allow phonological rules to apply in sequence, we can cycle through them using the output of the first rule as the input to the second. For many cases in the data set, at most one phonological rule introduces a structural change. But in cog, tail, or comb we see a single derivation that involves both rules. Furthermore, such cases are not rare in English. Any word that begins with a voiceless stop and contains a vowel that precedes a voiced consonant will require the application of both rules. We use cog as an illustrative example: Allophone Central to the concept of the phoneme is the idea that it may be pronounced in many different ways. In English (BBC pronunciation) we take it for granted that the r sounds in ‘ray’ and ‘tray’ are â€Å"the same sound† (i.e. the same phoneme), but in reality the two sounds are very different – the r in ‘ray’ is voiced and non-fricative, while the r sound in ‘tray’ is voiceless and fricative. In phonemic transcription we use the same symbol r for both, but we know that the allophones of r include the voiced nonfricative sound É ¹ and the voiceless fricative one . In theory a phoneme can have an infinite number of allophones, but in practice for descriptive purposes we tend to concentrate on a small number that occur most regularly. Phoneme This is the fundamental unit of phonology, which has been defined and used in many different ways. Virtually all theories of phonology hold that spoken language can be broken down into a string of sound units (phonemes), and that each language has a small, relatively fixed set of these phonemes. Most phonemes can be put into groups; for example, in English we can identify a group of plosive phonemes p, t, k, b, d a group of voiceless fricatives f, ÃŽ ¸, s, ÊÆ', h, and so on. An important question in phoneme theory is how the analyst can establish what the phonemes of a language are. The most widely accepted view is that phonemes are contrastive and one must find cases where the difference between two words is dependent on the difference between two phonemes: for example, we can prove that the difference between ‘pin’ and ‘pan’ depends on the vowel and that i and are different phonemes. Pairs of words that differ in just one phoneme are known as minimal pairs. We can establish the same fact about p and b by citing ‘pin’ and ‘bin’. Of course, you can only start doing commutation tests like this when you have a provisional list of possible phonemes to test, so some basic phonetic analysis must precede this stage. Other fundamental concepts used in phonemic analysis of this sort are complementary distribution, free variation, distinctive feature and allophone. Different analyses of a language are possible: in the case of English some phonologists claim that there are only six vowel phonemes, others that there are twenty or more (it depends on whether you count diphthongs and long vowels as single phonemes or as combinations of two phonemes). It used to be said that learning the  pronunciation of a language depended on learning the individual phonemes of the language, but this â€Å"building-block† view of pronunciation is looked on no wadays as an unhelpful oversimplification. Phonemics When the importance of the phoneme became widely accepted, in the 1930s and 40s, many attempts were made to develop scientific ways of establishing the phonemes of a language and listing each phoneme’s allophones; this was known as phonemics. Nowadays little importance is given to this type of analysis, and it is considered a minor branch of phonology, except for the practical purpose of devising writing systems for previously unwritten languages. Conclusion: An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language. A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. A phone is one of many possible sounds in the languages of the world. Phonemics a branch of linguistic analysis involving the study of phonemes, the structure of a language in terms of phonemes. General conclusion Morphophonemics, in linguistics, study of the relationship between morphology and phonology. Morphophonemics involves an investigation of the phonological variations within morphemes, usually marking different grammatical functions; e.g., the vowel changes in â€Å"sleep† and â€Å"slept,† â€Å"bind† and â€Å"bound,† â€Å"vain† and â€Å"vanity,† and the consonant alternations in â€Å"knife† and â€Å"knives,† â€Å"loaf† and â€Å"loaves.† The ways in which the morphemes of a language are variously represented by phonemic shapes can be regarded as a kind of code. This code is the morphophonemic system of the language. The morphophonemics of English is never so simple. There are always many instances of two or more morphemes represented by the same phonemic shape, and there are always cases in which a single morpheme is represented now by one phonemic shape, now by another. Therefore the morphophonemics of English is never trivial. Literature: 1. Hayes, Bruce (2009). Morphophonemic Analysis Introductory Phonology, pp. 161–185. Blackwell. 2. R. Jakobson, C. G. Fant, and M. Halle, Preliminaries to Speech Analysis, Fundamentals of Language (Mouton and Company, The Hague, 1956). 3. P. Roach (2004). â€Å"English Phonetics and Phonology†, Cambridge. 4. www.wikipedia.ru 5. www.sil.org 6. www.msu.edu

Delivery of Citizenship and PHSE within UK Schools

Delivery of Citizenship and PHSE within UK Schools This project addresses the problems that are currently being encountered with regard to the delivery of citizenship and PHSE within UK schools. To give emergent themes context – an historical review of their academic treatment is presented. This is broadened by considering the United States delivery of these subjects to determine whether the UK can learn anything from the American experience. Documentary analysis and interview schedules are the research methods used to analyse secondary sources and generate primary data. A number of conclusions are drawn – namely these subjects must be linked to current issues (e.g. AIDS/HIV, global citizenship etc) of the day – to ensure that their content and delivery remain relevant to the needs of young people. Recommendations for a more flexible approach regarding the delivery and assessment of these subjects are made at the end of the study. 1.1 What Does â€Å"Citizenship† Mean? Before it is possible to critically review and evaluate th eeffectiveness of the learning and teaching methods that are used to deliver citizenship and PHSE, it is necessary to begin by analysing their rationale and curricular content. In other words what are these subjects about and what are the benefits that pupils gain by studying them? Answering this question will provide a framework within which it can be determined whethercurrent academic practices are satisfying the aims and objectives ofthese subjects. Citizenship is a concept that can have a myriad of meanings andinterpretations. There is no universally agreed definition. Models of citizenship vary from country to country. The concept is continuously contested by political parties, academics and pressure groups. Despite the many interpretations of the concept that exist, all notions of citizenship imply to a greater or lesser degree, membership of apolitical community that is internally defined by rights, duties, participation and identity. The term â€Å"Active Citizenship† is widely used, but again there is no single accepted definition. The phrase is open to interpretation. From an educational perspective when there is no universally accepteddefinition of a concept, it makes it extremely difficult to transform such a subject into a meaningful learning experience for young people. In other words there are no â€Å"hard and fast† rules which can be appliedby teachers. When a concept has a clear and universally accepteddefinition, it provides the means by which to breakdown the subject into manageable chunks of learning. Thus students become skilled and knowledgeable when applying each component to a given set of circumstances. For example, in Business Studies, if you wish to measure the financialperformance of a company, it is possible to apply a number ofuniversally accepted accounting ratios. This forms a set ofâ€Å"standards†, which are quantifiable and which can be applied in a constant manner to a variety of different situations over a period of time. When it is possible to apply clearly defined and universally accepted standards to a subject or a concept – it becomes relativelyeasy to teach and learn. When a student understands how each component of a subject works, it isthen possible to interlink these areas and increase the complexity oflearning activities. Thus over time the student will master each stage(i.e. knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,evaluation) of the cognitive learning domain (Source:www.businessballs.com, Blooms Taxonomy of Learning Domains).Students will have a holistic view of the subject content and willunderstand how the constituent components interlink. Given that citizenship does not have a universally accepted definition; is it possible to develop a set of â€Å"standards†, which can be constantly applied? Citizenship poses serious problems for educationalists interms of its definition and delivery as a subject to young people throughout the UK. What are the statutory requirements for teaching citizenship? It is a statutory subject at key stages 3 and 4. Apartfrom the absence of an eight-level scale of achievement, it is treatedexactly the same as other foundation subjects in the National Curriculum. Schools are required to establish high standards for citizenship that are comparable with standards in other subjects (Source:www.dfes.gov.uk/citizenship). 1.2 What Are The Similarities Between Citizenship And PHSE? Both subjects are similar in their emphasis on values and attitudes,and in their concern to empower young people to act effectively andwith self-confidence. They are also similar in some of the themes they explore; such drug abuse and equal opportunities – and their emphasison active learning techniques like role play and discussion. What distinguishes the two concepts are their focus and content. PHSE focuses on personal and inter-personal decision making, whilecitizenship education deals with â€Å"public policy†. PHSE is concernedwith students’ choices as private individuals, the other with their rights as citizens. For example, a typical PSHE lesson on smoking deals withlegal rights and responsibilities, whereas a citizenship lesson focuseson the cost to society – exploring issues such as legislation onsmoking in public places or tobacco advertising. Thus citizenship canbe viewed as the global or societal perspective on key issues e.g.smoking etc. PHSE, on the other hand, concentrates on the needs, expectations and responsibilities of the individual. 1.3 Why Is It Necessary To Investigate The Teaching And Learning Methods Of Citizenship and PSHE? In 2004 the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) published areport (PSHE 2002/3 annual report on curriculum and assessment, QCA,March 2004) on the delivery of PSHE within schools in England. In thesummary of key findings it was noted that in some schools, there wasconfusion about what the differences and similarities between PSHE andcitizenship. Also even when schools had allocated a significant amount of curriculum time to the delivery of their PSHE programmes, it was rare for the assessment of pupils’ progress and achievement to take place. Ever since the National Curriculum was launched in 1988 there have been major concerns over the time available to deliver all of the core subjects (e.g. English, Mathematics etc). The introduction of new subjects (i.e. Citizenship in September 2002) places an even greater pressure on school timetables, teaching staff and resources. The major problems may be summarised as follows: a. As explained in section 1.1 there is no universally accepted definition of citizenship. b. There is confusion over the similarities and differences between citizenship and PSHE. c. The lack of quantifiable assessment strategies makes it verydifficult to evaluate the benefits pupils gain from the delivery ofthese subjects. d. Severe timetable constraints and a lack of appropriately trainedteaching staff are hindering the effective development and delivery ofthese areas. Therefore, the objectives of this project are as follows: a. To critically evaluate and review the learning and teachingmethods which are currently being used to deliver citizenship and PSHEin order to determine whether pupils are benefiting from thesestrategies. b. To identify examples of good practice and analyse whether they can be applied elsewhere. c. To analyse how these subjects and their interrelationship willdevelop in the future and determine how learning and teaching methodswill need to change in order to satisfy the new requirements. 2.1 The Teaching of Citizenship in UK Schools – A Historical Perspective The teaching of citizenship in UK schools has a long and problematicalhistory. Since the beginning of the twentieth century it has undergonea number of transformations. Up to the outbreak of the First World War,the purpose of citizenship education was to generate a sense ofnational cohesion, loyalty and obligation to the nature, as well as asense of pride in the Empire (Oliver and Heater, 1994). The secondphase of citizenship in education witnessed the rise of a more directapproach. That is, the systematic training of young people in deferenceand moral behaviour. Schools were encouraged to promote and cultivatethe â€Å"simple virtues of humility, service, restraint and respect forpersonality† (Ministry of Education, 1949, p.41), in their pupils. The 1960s brought a new emphasis regarding the delivery of citizenshipin schools. Notably that young people needed to become more politicallyaware and more active in their participation of social issues. A morerecent development (1990) witnessed the introduction of citizenshipinto the National Curriculum as a cross-curricular theme. Suchcross-curricular themes have suffered a chequered history and remain atthe margins of school timetables with the main thrust of deliveryconcentrating on core subjects and other academic considerations. This historical perspective of citizenship provides an insight into theproblems the subject has faced because of its poor definition andineffectual delivery. To rectify this situation a government proposalsought to â€Å"establish more explicit and coherent provision in the areasof personal, social and health education and citizenship† (DfEE, 1999,p. 1). The proposal aimed to introduce a framework across all keystages for personal, social and health education and citizenship.Furthermore, this development established â€Å"a coherent nationalframework which gives schools flexibility to develop their ownapproaches.† (DfEE, 1999, p. 13). Whilst this approach raised the profile of citizenship and sought toestablish it as an integral part of the National Curriculum, it createda number of problems. How exactly was it going to fit into a schooltimetable? As outlined earlier, in section 1.3, there have beennumerous problems with the National Curriculum, since its launch in1988. In 1999, there were yet again a number of government initiativesto reduce the prescriptive nature of the National Curriculum andprovide schools with greater flexibility. On the whole these changeslike previous initiatives only resulted in cosmetic changes. The other major problem with the new version of citizenship lay withthe delivery. Who exactly was going to teach this subject? It wasproposed that the knowledge required to teach the subject could begained from the core of an initial teacher training degree orpostgraduate certificate in education. Teachers already delivering PSHEcould acquire the knowledge and skills required to deliver citizenshipthrough continuous professional development. Having analysed the teaching of citizenship within the UK in terms ofthe current situation and from an historical perspective, it isnecessary to explore how this issue is dealt with by other countries.This will provide the opportunity to compare and contrast the UKexperience with other nations and determine whether there are anylessons to be learnt. In other words are there examples of goodpractice overseas? If so, is it transferable to schools in the UK? 2.2 The Teaching of Citizenship in the United States In the United States education for citizenship has been a longstanding goal of schools. To achieve this goal, students must learntheir civil rights and responsibilities in a free society. In 1991 JohnJ Patrick provided a review of why this was necessary and outlined howit could be achieved. Five key points, which are outlined below, formedthe basis of this review. a. The importance of teaching about the responsibilities of citizenship b. Deficiencies in learning about responsible citizenship c. How to improve learning about responsible citizenship at home d. How to improve learning about responsible citizenship at school e. Where to obtain information and materials about how to teach responsible citizenship The rationale for teaching citizenship was based upon the premise thatthe preservation of civil rights and liberties is linked to theperformance of responsibilities. Thus the responsibilities ofcitizenship – such as voluntary service to the community, participationin the political system etc – were essential to ensure the maintenanceof civil rights and liberties. However, reports on civic learning bythe National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), indicated thatthe majority of students in the 12th grade had a very limited knowledgeof government and citizenship in the United States. Furthermore, halfof the students in the 12th grade failed to demonstrate the knowledgeneeded for responsible participation in the political system. Thus in 1991 there was a clear need to improve the learning of youngAmericans about their responsibilities as citizens in a moderndemocracy. In effect Patrick was advocating a holistic approach to theteaching of citizenship within American schools. That is, young peopleneeded to become actively involved in every aspect of American life.Consequently he provided a list of organisations where materials couldbe obtained in order to aid the delivery of this subject. For example,the American Bar Association which operated a Special Committee onYouth Education for Citizenship, the Constitutional Rights Foundation,Council for the Advancement of Citizenship, the Social ScienceEducation Consortium and so on. The approach actively promoted by Patrick failed to have the desiredeffect. In 1991 the NAEP reported poor levels of attainment amongst12th graders with regard to citizenship and its related areas. Theresults of the 1998 NAEP civics examination completed by a sample of4th, 8th and 12th grade students across the United States showed thatstudents were not proficient in the skills that enable citizens to usetheir civic knowledge. The NAEP 2001 History Report Card results alsoshowed a similar lack of proficiency. President Bush launched a number of initiatives in 2003 to improve theawareness of citizenship and associated areas among young peoplethroughout the United States. Some of these initiatives are highlightedbelow: †¢ Idea of American Essay Contest: High School juniors nationwide areinvited to submit a 1,200 word essay on the â€Å"Idea of America† andreceive awards. †¢ â€Å"Heroes of History† Lecture: An annual lecture that features anacclaimed scholar telling the story of a hero in American life. Theselectures are made available to school libraries throughout the UnitedStates. President Bush participated in Pledge Across America, a nationwidepatriotic observation that invited every school child in America toparticipate in a simultaneous pledge of allegiance at 2pm EasternDaylight Time. The pledge was observed on the 215th anniversary of theUnited States Constitution, the conclusion of the first-ever NationalCivic Participation Week, and the beginning of Constitution Week(Source: http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/edu/fs091702.htm). 2.3 What Can We Learn From The Americans With Regard To Teaching Citizenship? The analysis of the American experience raises a number ofinteresting points. Notably the American educational authorities viathe National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) are activelyengaged in measuring students’ attainment with regard to theirknowledge and understanding of citizenship issues. As noted the resultson the whole have been poor. In the UK citizenship is taught throughoutall of the Key Stages of the National Curriculum. However, in Key Stages 1 and 2, there is no requirement for the formalassessment of pupils’ knowledge and understanding of citizenship issues(Source:www.dfes.gov.uk/citizenship). Progress in this subject issummarised in each pupil’s annual school report. In Key Stage 3, thereis an end-of-stage assessment. Whilst in Key Stage 4 there is nostatutory requirement for assessment. Three short courses are availablei.e. GCSE Citizenship Studies. The AQA (Assessment and QualificationsAlliance) version of this qualification requires students to undertakea 1.5 hour examination and complete a project. Should the UK adopt the United States assessment model? It wouldprovide the opportunity to quantify each pupil’s level of knowledge andunderstanding of citizenship issues throughout each Key Stage of theNational Curriculum. Such an approach would provide data which could beanalysed to determine the effectiveness of the teaching and learningstrategies that are currently deployed to deliver citizenship within UKschools. However, such a proposal would be met with stiff resistancefrom a variety of sources (i.e. teachers, parents, educationalistsetc). It is already considered in many quarters that school children inthe UK are already over assessed. Also it is interesting to note that the American model of citizenshipis radically different from the British version. The informationprovided about the American experience includes such phrases as â€Å"Heroesof History†. The British equivalent would mean portraying the likes ofHoratio Nelson and the Duke of Wellington as â€Å"heroes†. Thus theAmerican model concentrates heavily on patriotism (e.g. Pledge AcrossAmerica) and herein lays a broader issue. The United States isuniversally criticised throughout the world for being too insular, tooselfish and is not perceived as accepting its global responsibility tothe non-American citizens of the world. The American version ofcitizenship does not seem to recognise the word â€Å"global†. 2.4 The Future of Citizenship – Beyond National Boundaries The European Union has been in existence for nearly 50 years. However,until very recently, education remained untouched by the gradualmovement towards the pan European state. Curricula development andcontent were protected by each member-state. Since the advent of theMaastricht Treaty, the EU has developed and funded a number ofeducational initiatives to promote the concept of a â€Å"European superstate†; largely it must be said, without success. The Commission’sattempts to â€Å"Europeanise† education remained largely ineffective,mostly confined to the recognition of diplomas, vocational educationand the exchange of language teaching programmes (Soysal, 2001). However, a closer look at the way â€Å"Europe†, â€Å"nation† and â€Å"citizenship†are being represented in school books and curricula, particularly inthe disciplines of history and civics reveals another kind ofâ€Å"Europeanisation process† – that is, how European identity is likely toemerge and of significance to this project – how it will be taught inEuropean schools. This process is happening through highly active andinformal networks – largely unmonitored by formal EU institutions.Teachers’ unions and associations, academics and scientific experts,advocacy groups etc – are busy networking, arranging conferences etc –on â€Å"teaching Europe†. Perhaps the most significant development in this process is thedisappearance of the â€Å"nation state† – historical events are now retoldwithin a European perspective and a not within a nationalisticstraightjacket. National identities locate their legitimacy in deeplyrooted histories, cultures or territories. But Europe is notpast-oriented: it is future orientated. What does this mean for theteaching of citizenship in schools throughout Europe? It has long beenrecognised that these problems can only be resolved by nations actingas one. This is why the United States receives a lot of criticism, asit constantly failed to sign up to international agreements on carbonemissions etc. Thus the â€Å"Europeanisation process† is merely a steppingstone towards the creation of â€Å"global citizenship†. Learning for global citizenship is about understanding the need totackle injustice and inequality, and having the desire and ability towork effectively to do so: this is referred to as Action Competence(Jensen and Schnak, 1994). An example of a resource that provides aframework for learner-centred delivery would be Get Global! This iswhere pupils are involved in every aspect of their own educationalexperience. The Oxford Schools Catalogue contains a wide range ofmaterials published by Oxfam and others, focused on learning for GlobalCitizenship (Source:www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/teachers/catalogue.htm). 2.5 A Brief History of Sex Education in UK Schools In England from the late 19th century, a number of sex educationpublications were produced, mainly aimed at helping parents toenlighten their children. The Second World War had a huge impact on thepopulation of Europe. Fresh emphasis in sex education was placed onpreventing syphilis and gonorrhoea. In the 1950s and 1960s sexeducation in schools was carried out through the descriptions of thereproductive habits of plants and animals. By the beginning of the1970s, school sex education was beginning to change significantly. Forexample, methods of contraception began to be more widely taught. The 1980s witnesses further developments in sex education. The rise offeminist-thinking led to an increase in the number of programmes thatencouraged pupils to examine the roles played by men and women. Sexeducation programmes began to have such aims as the acquisition ofskills for decision-making, communicating, personal relationships,parenting and coping strategies. HIV and AIDS became a health issue inthe UK just when sex education became a political football. A number ofsituations arose – the 1985 Gillick case, which focused on whetherparents always have the right to know if their children are beingissued with contraceptives when under the age of 16 – the growingstrength of the lesbian and gay movement, lead to the polarisation ofviews on sex education, among politicians at local and national level. Thus sex education, as was with citizenship, has become politicallycontroversial. Recent school sex education programmes have variedconsiderably in their aims. At one extreme (rarely found in the UK butwell-funded and widespread in the USA), abstinence education aims toensure that young people do not engage in heavy petting or sexualintercourse before marriage. At the other end of the scale, some sexeducation programmes, challenge sexist and homophobic attitudes(Source: www.open2.net/sundaysurgery/thehistoryp.html). 2.6 Summary Of The Key Factors In the UK and USA there is a realisation that young people need tobecome actively in all aspects of national life (e.g. politics, localcommunity, environment etc). However, there are major differencesbetween the two countries. The American approach towards citizenship isbased heavily on patriotism. In many respects the current Americanmodel of citizenship seems similar to the one that pertained in the UKin the early part of the 20th century. Despite America’s best effortsto increase young people’s knowledge and understanding of citizenshipconcepts, the NAEP results show no increase in student attainmentbetween 1991 and 2001. The Americans seem to be ignoring the development of citizenship beyondnational boundaries. In order to solve the world’s problems we need toact as one unified force – hence we all need to embrace â€Å"globalcitizenship†. Sex education has moved substantially from its extremelylimited earlier forms to embrace a broader spectrum of sexual andsocial issues (e.g. AIDS/HIV, homosexuality etc). When this is comparedto the American experience, again like citizenship, there are hugedifferences in terms of objectives and content. Many American sexeducation programmes are founded on very conservative moral values. 2.7 Conclusions That Can Be Drawn From The Literature Review In Relation To The Objectives Of The Project a. To critically evaluate and review the learning andteaching methods which are currently being used to deliver citizenshipand PSHE in order to determine whether pupils are benefiting from thesestrategies. The literature review has shown that there are major problems inassessing the benefits that young people derive from these subjects.Formal assessment is broken down into two elements – formative (i.e.on-course – an assignment etc) and summative (i.e. end-of-the course –an exam, a completed portfolio etc). In the USA the NAEP results do notshow an increase in students’ knowledge and understanding ofcitizenship concepts. Within the National Curriculum, citizenship andPHSE have a minimum of formal assessment requirements. However, are formal assessment methods the best way to determinewhether students are benefiting from citizenship and PHSE? The purposeof these subjects is to help young people become better adults e.g. toact and behave in a morally and socially responsible manner etc. Thusit is reasonable to argue that formal assessment methods can onlyprovide a superficial measure of a young person’s knowledge andunderstanding of these concepts. What does measuring a person’s abilityto recall facts actually tell us? In reality a person will gain from a well delivered citizenship andPHSE programme in the longer term. They will become a more sociallyresponsible person; they will become a more effective parent and so on.Thus teaching these subjects is in effect an act of faith – we hopethat benefits will be produced in the longer term. A longitudinal studyis required i.e. one where a group of students is tracked for a numberof years. However, there are many factors involved when someone turnsout to a good parent etc. It would be extremely hard to isolate theinfluences of citizenship and PHSE from all the other issues that areinvolved e.g. family background etc. Whilst it is nigh on impossible to assess the long-term benefits peoplegain from these subjects – it is possible to utilise existing learningand teaching methods to generate immediate benefits for the studentsconcerned. How this can be achieved will be analysed in the latterstages of the project. b. To identify examples of good practice and analyse whether they can be applied elsewhere. Has the literature review identify examples of good practice withregard to the teaching of citizenship and PHSE? Given the politicalcontroversy these subjects generate – there can only be one answer tothis question. It depends upon your point of view – determining whethersomething is an example of good practice is in the eye of the beholder.The key to progression is to establish and develop a wider audience forthe objectives you are trying to achieve. For example, the â€Å"Europeanisation process† demonstrates how differentorganisations, individuals etc – by working together, can create forumsfor discussion and the dissemination of new ideas, materials etc. TheInternet has revolutionised how people communicate and accessinformation. This allows people and organisations to bypass nationalboundaries and work towards the creation of â€Å"global citizenship†. Thus if they are going to be meaningful and allow young people toconnect and become part of â€Å"global citizenship† – the academic contentof citizenship and PHSE must reflect current developments. This meansthat learning and teaching methods must continuously evolve to ensurethat the delivery of these subjects reflects current trends anddevelopments. How this can be achieved will be explored in the latterstages of the project. c. To analyse how these subjects and theirinterrelationship will develop in the future and determine how learningand teaching methods will need to change in order to satisfy the newrequirements. A key feature of PHSE is that young people should practice â€Å"safe sex†.In its most literal form this simply means making sure that youngpeople have adequate access to and use of contraceptive methods. Insome quarters it would be argued that â€Å"safe sex† must involve moral,social and emotional responsibilities. Are these areas PHSE orcitizenship concepts? Whatever your view and political stance there isclearly an overlap between the two subjects. Future curricularinitiatives and the development of learning and teaching methods mustembrace the close interrelationship between these academic areas. 3.1 What Must The Research Methodology Achieve? In order to fulfil the requirements of the project objectives the research methodology must address the following issues: a. The analysis of the learning and teaching methods that are beingused to deliver citizenship and PHSE within UK schools in order todetermine their effectiveness. b. The critical evaluation of the assessment strategies that are used to measure pupil attainment within these subjects. c. An evaluation of how learning, teaching and assessment strategiesmust develop to ensure that citizenship and PHSE remain relevant to theneeds of young people. The National Curriculum was introduced in 1988 in order to develop acomprehensive approach to the delivery and development of educationwithin the UK. A number of government departments and agencies areresponsible for managing the content, development, delivery andeffectiveness of the education system. The research methodology mustinvestigate the work of these government departments and agencies inrelation to citizenship and PHSE. This is necessary in order to addressthe issues outlined above. How will this be achieved? The work of three different bodies must be investigated. These are as follows: a. The Department for Education and Skills (DfES) was establishedwith the purpose of creating opportunity, realising potential andachieving excellent for all. The Qualifications Curriculum Authority(QCA) is a non-departmental public body, sponsored by the DfES. It isresponsible for maintaining and developing the National Curriculum andassociated assessments, tests and examinations; and accredits andmonitors qualifications in colleges and at work. It is thisorganisation which is responsible for managing and developing thecurricular content of citizenship and PHSE and providing guidance onlearning and teaching methods. b. The Office for Educational Standards (OFSTED) is the inspectoratefor children and learners in England. Its main responsibility is tocontribute to the provision of better education and care. This isachieved through a comprehensive system of inspection and regulationcovering childcare, schools, colleges, children’s services, teachertraining and youth work. Thus it inspects and evaluates the teaching ofcitizenship and PHSE throughout England. c. The practitioners (i.e. the school managers, teachers, supportworkers etc) are responsible for delivering the curricular content ofcitizenship and PHSE in accordance with the standards and methodsstated and disseminated by the DfES and the QCA. 3.2 What Methods Will The Research Methodology Use? Secondary research is the investigation of data sources which alreadyexist. The main advantage of using such sources is that they arereadily available and can be utilised to develop knowledge andunderstanding of a given situation. Primary research entails generatinginformation, which did not previously exist. This is necessary whensecondary data sources do not fulfil the information requirements of aresearch project. In order to investigate the work of the DfES, QCA and OFSTED, it is notnecessary to conduct primary research. This is because of two reasons.One, the government wants the work of these bodies to be transparentand within the public domain. Two, easily accessible secondary datasources will be sufficient to facilitate the objectives of thisproject. As stated, the websites for the DfES, QCA and OFSTED provideaccess to numerous reports and information on all aspects of theiroperations. Therefore, the research method that will be used to analysethis data is documentary analysis. In effect this involves analysingreports and relating the findings to the project objectives. However, in any given project or area of research different opinionswill prevail. If you like – DfES, QCA and OFSTED represent thegovernment’s views. What does everybody else think? The practitioners –as listed above – are at the sharp end of the business – Delivery of Citizenship and PHSE within UK Schools Delivery of Citizenship and PHSE within UK Schools This project addresses the problems that are currently being encountered with regard to the delivery of citizenship and PHSE within UK schools. To give emergent themes context – an historical review of their academic treatment is presented. This is broadened by considering the United States delivery of these subjects to determine whether the UK can learn anything from the American experience. Documentary analysis and interview schedules are the research methods used to analyse secondary sources and generate primary data. A number of conclusions are drawn – namely these subjects must be linked to current issues (e.g. AIDS/HIV, global citizenship etc) of the day – to ensure that their content and delivery remain relevant to the needs of young people. Recommendations for a more flexible approach regarding the delivery and assessment of these subjects are made at the end of the study. 1.1 What Does â€Å"Citizenship† Mean? Before it is possible to critically review and evaluate th eeffectiveness of the learning and teaching methods that are used to deliver citizenship and PHSE, it is necessary to begin by analysing their rationale and curricular content. In other words what are these subjects about and what are the benefits that pupils gain by studying them? Answering this question will provide a framework within which it can be determined whethercurrent academic practices are satisfying the aims and objectives ofthese subjects. Citizenship is a concept that can have a myriad of meanings andinterpretations. There is no universally agreed definition. Models of citizenship vary from country to country. The concept is continuously contested by political parties, academics and pressure groups. Despite the many interpretations of the concept that exist, all notions of citizenship imply to a greater or lesser degree, membership of apolitical community that is internally defined by rights, duties, participation and identity. The term â€Å"Active Citizenship† is widely used, but again there is no single accepted definition. The phrase is open to interpretation. From an educational perspective when there is no universally accepteddefinition of a concept, it makes it extremely difficult to transform such a subject into a meaningful learning experience for young people. In other words there are no â€Å"hard and fast† rules which can be appliedby teachers. When a concept has a clear and universally accepteddefinition, it provides the means by which to breakdown the subject into manageable chunks of learning. Thus students become skilled and knowledgeable when applying each component to a given set of circumstances. For example, in Business Studies, if you wish to measure the financialperformance of a company, it is possible to apply a number ofuniversally accepted accounting ratios. This forms a set ofâ€Å"standards†, which are quantifiable and which can be applied in a constant manner to a variety of different situations over a period of time. When it is possible to apply clearly defined and universally accepted standards to a subject or a concept – it becomes relativelyeasy to teach and learn. When a student understands how each component of a subject works, it isthen possible to interlink these areas and increase the complexity oflearning activities. Thus over time the student will master each stage(i.e. knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,evaluation) of the cognitive learning domain (Source:www.businessballs.com, Blooms Taxonomy of Learning Domains).Students will have a holistic view of the subject content and willunderstand how the constituent components interlink. Given that citizenship does not have a universally accepted definition; is it possible to develop a set of â€Å"standards†, which can be constantly applied? Citizenship poses serious problems for educationalists interms of its definition and delivery as a subject to young people throughout the UK. What are the statutory requirements for teaching citizenship? It is a statutory subject at key stages 3 and 4. Apartfrom the absence of an eight-level scale of achievement, it is treatedexactly the same as other foundation subjects in the National Curriculum. Schools are required to establish high standards for citizenship that are comparable with standards in other subjects (Source:www.dfes.gov.uk/citizenship). 1.2 What Are The Similarities Between Citizenship And PHSE? Both subjects are similar in their emphasis on values and attitudes,and in their concern to empower young people to act effectively andwith self-confidence. They are also similar in some of the themes they explore; such drug abuse and equal opportunities – and their emphasison active learning techniques like role play and discussion. What distinguishes the two concepts are their focus and content. PHSE focuses on personal and inter-personal decision making, whilecitizenship education deals with â€Å"public policy†. PHSE is concernedwith students’ choices as private individuals, the other with their rights as citizens. For example, a typical PSHE lesson on smoking deals withlegal rights and responsibilities, whereas a citizenship lesson focuseson the cost to society – exploring issues such as legislation onsmoking in public places or tobacco advertising. Thus citizenship canbe viewed as the global or societal perspective on key issues e.g.smoking etc. PHSE, on the other hand, concentrates on the needs, expectations and responsibilities of the individual. 1.3 Why Is It Necessary To Investigate The Teaching And Learning Methods Of Citizenship and PSHE? In 2004 the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) published areport (PSHE 2002/3 annual report on curriculum and assessment, QCA,March 2004) on the delivery of PSHE within schools in England. In thesummary of key findings it was noted that in some schools, there wasconfusion about what the differences and similarities between PSHE andcitizenship. Also even when schools had allocated a significant amount of curriculum time to the delivery of their PSHE programmes, it was rare for the assessment of pupils’ progress and achievement to take place. Ever since the National Curriculum was launched in 1988 there have been major concerns over the time available to deliver all of the core subjects (e.g. English, Mathematics etc). The introduction of new subjects (i.e. Citizenship in September 2002) places an even greater pressure on school timetables, teaching staff and resources. The major problems may be summarised as follows: a. As explained in section 1.1 there is no universally accepted definition of citizenship. b. There is confusion over the similarities and differences between citizenship and PSHE. c. The lack of quantifiable assessment strategies makes it verydifficult to evaluate the benefits pupils gain from the delivery ofthese subjects. d. Severe timetable constraints and a lack of appropriately trainedteaching staff are hindering the effective development and delivery ofthese areas. Therefore, the objectives of this project are as follows: a. To critically evaluate and review the learning and teachingmethods which are currently being used to deliver citizenship and PSHEin order to determine whether pupils are benefiting from thesestrategies. b. To identify examples of good practice and analyse whether they can be applied elsewhere. c. To analyse how these subjects and their interrelationship willdevelop in the future and determine how learning and teaching methodswill need to change in order to satisfy the new requirements. 2.1 The Teaching of Citizenship in UK Schools – A Historical Perspective The teaching of citizenship in UK schools has a long and problematicalhistory. Since the beginning of the twentieth century it has undergonea number of transformations. Up to the outbreak of the First World War,the purpose of citizenship education was to generate a sense ofnational cohesion, loyalty and obligation to the nature, as well as asense of pride in the Empire (Oliver and Heater, 1994). The secondphase of citizenship in education witnessed the rise of a more directapproach. That is, the systematic training of young people in deferenceand moral behaviour. Schools were encouraged to promote and cultivatethe â€Å"simple virtues of humility, service, restraint and respect forpersonality† (Ministry of Education, 1949, p.41), in their pupils. The 1960s brought a new emphasis regarding the delivery of citizenshipin schools. Notably that young people needed to become more politicallyaware and more active in their participation of social issues. A morerecent development (1990) witnessed the introduction of citizenshipinto the National Curriculum as a cross-curricular theme. Suchcross-curricular themes have suffered a chequered history and remain atthe margins of school timetables with the main thrust of deliveryconcentrating on core subjects and other academic considerations. This historical perspective of citizenship provides an insight into theproblems the subject has faced because of its poor definition andineffectual delivery. To rectify this situation a government proposalsought to â€Å"establish more explicit and coherent provision in the areasof personal, social and health education and citizenship† (DfEE, 1999,p. 1). The proposal aimed to introduce a framework across all keystages for personal, social and health education and citizenship.Furthermore, this development established â€Å"a coherent nationalframework which gives schools flexibility to develop their ownapproaches.† (DfEE, 1999, p. 13). Whilst this approach raised the profile of citizenship and sought toestablish it as an integral part of the National Curriculum, it createda number of problems. How exactly was it going to fit into a schooltimetable? As outlined earlier, in section 1.3, there have beennumerous problems with the National Curriculum, since its launch in1988. In 1999, there were yet again a number of government initiativesto reduce the prescriptive nature of the National Curriculum andprovide schools with greater flexibility. On the whole these changeslike previous initiatives only resulted in cosmetic changes. The other major problem with the new version of citizenship lay withthe delivery. Who exactly was going to teach this subject? It wasproposed that the knowledge required to teach the subject could begained from the core of an initial teacher training degree orpostgraduate certificate in education. Teachers already delivering PSHEcould acquire the knowledge and skills required to deliver citizenshipthrough continuous professional development. Having analysed the teaching of citizenship within the UK in terms ofthe current situation and from an historical perspective, it isnecessary to explore how this issue is dealt with by other countries.This will provide the opportunity to compare and contrast the UKexperience with other nations and determine whether there are anylessons to be learnt. In other words are there examples of goodpractice overseas? If so, is it transferable to schools in the UK? 2.2 The Teaching of Citizenship in the United States In the United States education for citizenship has been a longstanding goal of schools. To achieve this goal, students must learntheir civil rights and responsibilities in a free society. In 1991 JohnJ Patrick provided a review of why this was necessary and outlined howit could be achieved. Five key points, which are outlined below, formedthe basis of this review. a. The importance of teaching about the responsibilities of citizenship b. Deficiencies in learning about responsible citizenship c. How to improve learning about responsible citizenship at home d. How to improve learning about responsible citizenship at school e. Where to obtain information and materials about how to teach responsible citizenship The rationale for teaching citizenship was based upon the premise thatthe preservation of civil rights and liberties is linked to theperformance of responsibilities. Thus the responsibilities ofcitizenship – such as voluntary service to the community, participationin the political system etc – were essential to ensure the maintenanceof civil rights and liberties. However, reports on civic learning bythe National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), indicated thatthe majority of students in the 12th grade had a very limited knowledgeof government and citizenship in the United States. Furthermore, halfof the students in the 12th grade failed to demonstrate the knowledgeneeded for responsible participation in the political system. Thus in 1991 there was a clear need to improve the learning of youngAmericans about their responsibilities as citizens in a moderndemocracy. In effect Patrick was advocating a holistic approach to theteaching of citizenship within American schools. That is, young peopleneeded to become actively involved in every aspect of American life.Consequently he provided a list of organisations where materials couldbe obtained in order to aid the delivery of this subject. For example,the American Bar Association which operated a Special Committee onYouth Education for Citizenship, the Constitutional Rights Foundation,Council for the Advancement of Citizenship, the Social ScienceEducation Consortium and so on. The approach actively promoted by Patrick failed to have the desiredeffect. In 1991 the NAEP reported poor levels of attainment amongst12th graders with regard to citizenship and its related areas. Theresults of the 1998 NAEP civics examination completed by a sample of4th, 8th and 12th grade students across the United States showed thatstudents were not proficient in the skills that enable citizens to usetheir civic knowledge. The NAEP 2001 History Report Card results alsoshowed a similar lack of proficiency. President Bush launched a number of initiatives in 2003 to improve theawareness of citizenship and associated areas among young peoplethroughout the United States. Some of these initiatives are highlightedbelow: †¢ Idea of American Essay Contest: High School juniors nationwide areinvited to submit a 1,200 word essay on the â€Å"Idea of America† andreceive awards. †¢ â€Å"Heroes of History† Lecture: An annual lecture that features anacclaimed scholar telling the story of a hero in American life. Theselectures are made available to school libraries throughout the UnitedStates. President Bush participated in Pledge Across America, a nationwidepatriotic observation that invited every school child in America toparticipate in a simultaneous pledge of allegiance at 2pm EasternDaylight Time. The pledge was observed on the 215th anniversary of theUnited States Constitution, the conclusion of the first-ever NationalCivic Participation Week, and the beginning of Constitution Week(Source: http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/edu/fs091702.htm). 2.3 What Can We Learn From The Americans With Regard To Teaching Citizenship? The analysis of the American experience raises a number ofinteresting points. Notably the American educational authorities viathe National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) are activelyengaged in measuring students’ attainment with regard to theirknowledge and understanding of citizenship issues. As noted the resultson the whole have been poor. In the UK citizenship is taught throughoutall of the Key Stages of the National Curriculum. However, in Key Stages 1 and 2, there is no requirement for the formalassessment of pupils’ knowledge and understanding of citizenship issues(Source:www.dfes.gov.uk/citizenship). Progress in this subject issummarised in each pupil’s annual school report. In Key Stage 3, thereis an end-of-stage assessment. Whilst in Key Stage 4 there is nostatutory requirement for assessment. Three short courses are availablei.e. GCSE Citizenship Studies. The AQA (Assessment and QualificationsAlliance) version of this qualification requires students to undertakea 1.5 hour examination and complete a project. Should the UK adopt the United States assessment model? It wouldprovide the opportunity to quantify each pupil’s level of knowledge andunderstanding of citizenship issues throughout each Key Stage of theNational Curriculum. Such an approach would provide data which could beanalysed to determine the effectiveness of the teaching and learningstrategies that are currently deployed to deliver citizenship within UKschools. However, such a proposal would be met with stiff resistancefrom a variety of sources (i.e. teachers, parents, educationalistsetc). It is already considered in many quarters that school children inthe UK are already over assessed. Also it is interesting to note that the American model of citizenshipis radically different from the British version. The informationprovided about the American experience includes such phrases as â€Å"Heroesof History†. The British equivalent would mean portraying the likes ofHoratio Nelson and the Duke of Wellington as â€Å"heroes†. Thus theAmerican model concentrates heavily on patriotism (e.g. Pledge AcrossAmerica) and herein lays a broader issue. The United States isuniversally criticised throughout the world for being too insular, tooselfish and is not perceived as accepting its global responsibility tothe non-American citizens of the world. The American version ofcitizenship does not seem to recognise the word â€Å"global†. 2.4 The Future of Citizenship – Beyond National Boundaries The European Union has been in existence for nearly 50 years. However,until very recently, education remained untouched by the gradualmovement towards the pan European state. Curricula development andcontent were protected by each member-state. Since the advent of theMaastricht Treaty, the EU has developed and funded a number ofeducational initiatives to promote the concept of a â€Å"European superstate†; largely it must be said, without success. The Commission’sattempts to â€Å"Europeanise† education remained largely ineffective,mostly confined to the recognition of diplomas, vocational educationand the exchange of language teaching programmes (Soysal, 2001). However, a closer look at the way â€Å"Europe†, â€Å"nation† and â€Å"citizenship†are being represented in school books and curricula, particularly inthe disciplines of history and civics reveals another kind ofâ€Å"Europeanisation process† – that is, how European identity is likely toemerge and of significance to this project – how it will be taught inEuropean schools. This process is happening through highly active andinformal networks – largely unmonitored by formal EU institutions.Teachers’ unions and associations, academics and scientific experts,advocacy groups etc – are busy networking, arranging conferences etc –on â€Å"teaching Europe†. Perhaps the most significant development in this process is thedisappearance of the â€Å"nation state† – historical events are now retoldwithin a European perspective and a not within a nationalisticstraightjacket. National identities locate their legitimacy in deeplyrooted histories, cultures or territories. But Europe is notpast-oriented: it is future orientated. What does this mean for theteaching of citizenship in schools throughout Europe? It has long beenrecognised that these problems can only be resolved by nations actingas one. This is why the United States receives a lot of criticism, asit constantly failed to sign up to international agreements on carbonemissions etc. Thus the â€Å"Europeanisation process† is merely a steppingstone towards the creation of â€Å"global citizenship†. Learning for global citizenship is about understanding the need totackle injustice and inequality, and having the desire and ability towork effectively to do so: this is referred to as Action Competence(Jensen and Schnak, 1994). An example of a resource that provides aframework for learner-centred delivery would be Get Global! This iswhere pupils are involved in every aspect of their own educationalexperience. The Oxford Schools Catalogue contains a wide range ofmaterials published by Oxfam and others, focused on learning for GlobalCitizenship (Source:www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/teachers/catalogue.htm). 2.5 A Brief History of Sex Education in UK Schools In England from the late 19th century, a number of sex educationpublications were produced, mainly aimed at helping parents toenlighten their children. The Second World War had a huge impact on thepopulation of Europe. Fresh emphasis in sex education was placed onpreventing syphilis and gonorrhoea. In the 1950s and 1960s sexeducation in schools was carried out through the descriptions of thereproductive habits of plants and animals. By the beginning of the1970s, school sex education was beginning to change significantly. Forexample, methods of contraception began to be more widely taught. The 1980s witnesses further developments in sex education. The rise offeminist-thinking led to an increase in the number of programmes thatencouraged pupils to examine the roles played by men and women. Sexeducation programmes began to have such aims as the acquisition ofskills for decision-making, communicating, personal relationships,parenting and coping strategies. HIV and AIDS became a health issue inthe UK just when sex education became a political football. A number ofsituations arose – the 1985 Gillick case, which focused on whetherparents always have the right to know if their children are beingissued with contraceptives when under the age of 16 – the growingstrength of the lesbian and gay movement, lead to the polarisation ofviews on sex education, among politicians at local and national level. Thus sex education, as was with citizenship, has become politicallycontroversial. Recent school sex education programmes have variedconsiderably in their aims. At one extreme (rarely found in the UK butwell-funded and widespread in the USA), abstinence education aims toensure that young people do not engage in heavy petting or sexualintercourse before marriage. At the other end of the scale, some sexeducation programmes, challenge sexist and homophobic attitudes(Source: www.open2.net/sundaysurgery/thehistoryp.html). 2.6 Summary Of The Key Factors In the UK and USA there is a realisation that young people need tobecome actively in all aspects of national life (e.g. politics, localcommunity, environment etc). However, there are major differencesbetween the two countries. The American approach towards citizenship isbased heavily on patriotism. In many respects the current Americanmodel of citizenship seems similar to the one that pertained in the UKin the early part of the 20th century. Despite America’s best effortsto increase young people’s knowledge and understanding of citizenshipconcepts, the NAEP results show no increase in student attainmentbetween 1991 and 2001. The Americans seem to be ignoring the development of citizenship beyondnational boundaries. In order to solve the world’s problems we need toact as one unified force – hence we all need to embrace â€Å"globalcitizenship†. Sex education has moved substantially from its extremelylimited earlier forms to embrace a broader spectrum of sexual andsocial issues (e.g. AIDS/HIV, homosexuality etc). When this is comparedto the American experience, again like citizenship, there are hugedifferences in terms of objectives and content. Many American sexeducation programmes are founded on very conservative moral values. 2.7 Conclusions That Can Be Drawn From The Literature Review In Relation To The Objectives Of The Project a. To critically evaluate and review the learning andteaching methods which are currently being used to deliver citizenshipand PSHE in order to determine whether pupils are benefiting from thesestrategies. The literature review has shown that there are major problems inassessing the benefits that young people derive from these subjects.Formal assessment is broken down into two elements – formative (i.e.on-course – an assignment etc) and summative (i.e. end-of-the course –an exam, a completed portfolio etc). In the USA the NAEP results do notshow an increase in students’ knowledge and understanding ofcitizenship concepts. Within the National Curriculum, citizenship andPHSE have a minimum of formal assessment requirements. However, are formal assessment methods the best way to determinewhether students are benefiting from citizenship and PHSE? The purposeof these subjects is to help young people become better adults e.g. toact and behave in a morally and socially responsible manner etc. Thusit is reasonable to argue that formal assessment methods can onlyprovide a superficial measure of a young person’s knowledge andunderstanding of these concepts. What does measuring a person’s abilityto recall facts actually tell us? In reality a person will gain from a well delivered citizenship andPHSE programme in the longer term. They will become a more sociallyresponsible person; they will become a more effective parent and so on.Thus teaching these subjects is in effect an act of faith – we hopethat benefits will be produced in the longer term. A longitudinal studyis required i.e. one where a group of students is tracked for a numberof years. However, there are many factors involved when someone turnsout to a good parent etc. It would be extremely hard to isolate theinfluences of citizenship and PHSE from all the other issues that areinvolved e.g. family background etc. Whilst it is nigh on impossible to assess the long-term benefits peoplegain from these subjects – it is possible to utilise existing learningand teaching methods to generate immediate benefits for the studentsconcerned. How this can be achieved will be analysed in the latterstages of the project. b. To identify examples of good practice and analyse whether they can be applied elsewhere. Has the literature review identify examples of good practice withregard to the teaching of citizenship and PHSE? Given the politicalcontroversy these subjects generate – there can only be one answer tothis question. It depends upon your point of view – determining whethersomething is an example of good practice is in the eye of the beholder.The key to progression is to establish and develop a wider audience forthe objectives you are trying to achieve. For example, the â€Å"Europeanisation process† demonstrates how differentorganisations, individuals etc – by working together, can create forumsfor discussion and the dissemination of new ideas, materials etc. TheInternet has revolutionised how people communicate and accessinformation. This allows people and organisations to bypass nationalboundaries and work towards the creation of â€Å"global citizenship†. Thus if they are going to be meaningful and allow young people toconnect and become part of â€Å"global citizenship† – the academic contentof citizenship and PHSE must reflect current developments. This meansthat learning and teaching methods must continuously evolve to ensurethat the delivery of these subjects reflects current trends anddevelopments. How this can be achieved will be explored in the latterstages of the project. c. To analyse how these subjects and theirinterrelationship will develop in the future and determine how learningand teaching methods will need to change in order to satisfy the newrequirements. A key feature of PHSE is that young people should practice â€Å"safe sex†.In its most literal form this simply means making sure that youngpeople have adequate access to and use of contraceptive methods. Insome quarters it would be argued that â€Å"safe sex† must involve moral,social and emotional responsibilities. Are these areas PHSE orcitizenship concepts? Whatever your view and political stance there isclearly an overlap between the two subjects. Future curricularinitiatives and the development of learning and teaching methods mustembrace the close interrelationship between these academic areas. 3.1 What Must The Research Methodology Achieve? In order to fulfil the requirements of the project objectives the research methodology must address the following issues: a. The analysis of the learning and teaching methods that are beingused to deliver citizenship and PHSE within UK schools in order todetermine their effectiveness. b. The critical evaluation of the assessment strategies that are used to measure pupil attainment within these subjects. c. An evaluation of how learning, teaching and assessment strategiesmust develop to ensure that citizenship and PHSE remain relevant to theneeds of young people. The National Curriculum was introduced in 1988 in order to develop acomprehensive approach to the delivery and development of educationwithin the UK. A number of government departments and agencies areresponsible for managing the content, development, delivery andeffectiveness of the education system. The research methodology mustinvestigate the work of these government departments and agencies inrelation to citizenship and PHSE. This is necessary in order to addressthe issues outlined above. How will this be achieved? The work of three different bodies must be investigated. These are as follows: a. The Department for Education and Skills (DfES) was establishedwith the purpose of creating opportunity, realising potential andachieving excellent for all. The Qualifications Curriculum Authority(QCA) is a non-departmental public body, sponsored by the DfES. It isresponsible for maintaining and developing the National Curriculum andassociated assessments, tests and examinations; and accredits andmonitors qualifications in colleges and at work. It is thisorganisation which is responsible for managing and developing thecurricular content of citizenship and PHSE and providing guidance onlearning and teaching methods. b. The Office for Educational Standards (OFSTED) is the inspectoratefor children and learners in England. Its main responsibility is tocontribute to the provision of better education and care. This isachieved through a comprehensive system of inspection and regulationcovering childcare, schools, colleges, children’s services, teachertraining and youth work. Thus it inspects and evaluates the teaching ofcitizenship and PHSE throughout England. c. The practitioners (i.e. the school managers, teachers, supportworkers etc) are responsible for delivering the curricular content ofcitizenship and PHSE in accordance with the standards and methodsstated and disseminated by the DfES and the QCA. 3.2 What Methods Will The Research Methodology Use? Secondary research is the investigation of data sources which alreadyexist. The main advantage of using such sources is that they arereadily available and can be utilised to develop knowledge andunderstanding of a given situation. Primary research entails generatinginformation, which did not previously exist. This is necessary whensecondary data sources do not fulfil the information requirements of aresearch project. In order to investigate the work of the DfES, QCA and OFSTED, it is notnecessary to conduct primary research. This is because of two reasons.One, the government wants the work of these bodies to be transparentand within the public domain. Two, easily accessible secondary datasources will be sufficient to facilitate the objectives of thisproject. As stated, the websites for the DfES, QCA and OFSTED provideaccess to numerous reports and information on all aspects of theiroperations. Therefore, the research method that will be used to analysethis data is documentary analysis. In effect this involves analysingreports and relating the findings to the project objectives. However, in any given project or area of research different opinionswill prevail. If you like – DfES, QCA and OFSTED represent thegovernment’s views. What does everybody else think? The practitioners –as listed above – are at the sharp end of the business –